The American Declaration of Independence (1776) was profoundly influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment's focus on natural rights, "common sense" philosophy, and civic liberty.
Scottish thinkers like Francis Hutcheson and David Hume, along with key Scottish-American figures such as John Witherspoon, helped shape the intellectual foundation for American self-determination, emphasizing that government derives its power from the people.
Thomas Jefferson’s personal library catalogs, now preserved at the Library of Congress, prove he owned and closely studied several foundational books by Scottish Enlightenment thinkers. He even included these specific titles in a recommended reading list he prepared for a friend in 1771.
Key Connections & Influences
The "Common Sense" Influence: Thomas Jefferson’s phrase "We hold these truths to be self-evident" is widely seen as a reflection of the Scottish "Common Sense" school of philosophy (associated with figures like Thomas Reid), which argued that ordinary people possess innate, intuitive truths.
Key Individuals: John Witherspoon, a Presbyterian minister born in Scotland and president of Princeton, was a key signatory who taught many revolutionary leaders, including James Madison, merging Scottish moral philosophy with American revolutionary fervor.
Philosophical Roots: Scottish philosophers like Francis Hutcheson pioneered concepts of natural rights and the right to resist tyranny, which heavily influenced Jefferson's view on "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness".
The Declaration of Arbroath (1320): Historians note similarities between the American Declaration and the Scottish Declaration of Arbroath (1320), which was an early assertion of independence and the right of a community to choose its own leader.
Scottish Influence on American Leadership
Signers: While many, at least two signers of the Declaration of Independence were born in Scotland: James Wilson and John Witherspoon.
Education: Many American founders and thinkers were educated by Scottish professors or studied in Scottish universities.
The Philosophical Shift
The Scottish Enlightenment fostered an independence of mind and critical thinking that influenced the Founding Fathers to move away from traditional monarchy toward a republican form of government. This era was characterized by a "science of man," focusing on human reason, liberty, and the practical application of political rights.
Key Philosophical Links
John Locke's Scottish Translators: Scottish professors popularized Locke's ideas on contract theory.
Francis Hutcheson's Influence: Hutcheson coining "the greatest happiness for the greatest number" inspired Thomas Jefferson.
The Right to Resistance: Scottish thinkers argued citizens must overthrow tyrannical governments.
Common Sense Realism: Scottish philosophy argued that truths are self-evident to human reason.
Direct Textual Connections
"Self-Evident" Truths: Jefferson’s phrasing mirrors William Small’s teachings on Scottish Common Sense philosophy.
"Pursuit of Happiness": Derived from Hutcheson's moral philosophy regarding the common good.
The List of Grievances: Mirrors Scottish legal arguments regarding the breach of contract by a monarch.
Key Transmitters of Ideas
John Witherspoon: Scottish minister who taught James Madison at Princeton University.
William Small: Scottish professor at William & Mary who directly mentored Thomas Jefferson.
James Wilson: Scottish-born legal scholar who signed the Declaration of Independence.
The US Constitution
The principles of the Scottish Enlightenment moved from the Declaration of Independence directly into the framing of the US Constitution in 1787. Scottish-born Framer James Wilson and Scottish-educated James Madison used these ideas to engineer the mechanical structure of the new American government.
The Mechanics of Government: David Hume's Influence
The Extended Republic: Traditional political theory held that republics could only survive in small territories. James Madison used David Hume’s essay "Idea of a Perfect Commonwealth" to argue the exact opposite in Federalist No. 10. A large republic protects liberty by diluting the power of local factions.
Checks and Balances: Hume viewed human nature as inherently flawed and driven by self-interest. The Constitution does not rely on civic virtue alone. Instead, it pits "ambition against ambition" through three separate branches of government to keep power in check.
Factions as Inevitable: Following Hume's logic, the Framers accepted that political parties and interest groups are natural to human society. Rather than trying to eliminate factions, the Constitution controls their dangerous effects through institutional design.
Popular Sovereignty: James Wilson and Common Sense Realism
"We the People": Scottish-born James Wilson, trained at the universities of St Andrews, Glasgow, and Edinburgh, pioneered the concept of popular sovereignty in America. He insisted that the Supreme Power resides strictly in the people, not in the individual states or the federal government.
The Electoral College and Judiciary: Wilson used Scottish Common Sense philosophy to argue that ordinary citizens possess the moral capacity to choose their leaders. He advocated for the direct election of both the President and the Senate, though he had to compromise on the final institutional designs.
Economics and Federal Power: Adam Smith's Footprints
The Commerce Clause: Article I, Section 8 allows the federal government to regulate commerce among states. This clause prevents individual states from setting up internal tariffs, directly applying Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations philosophy regarding the benefits of a vast, frictionless domestic free-trade market.
A Sound National Currency: Smith warned against the dangers of paper money and unstable credit. The Constitution reflects this by stripping individual states of the power to coin money or emit bills of credit, stabilizing the economy for international trade.
The Scottish View of Constitutional Evolution
An Amendable Framework: Thinkers like Lord Kames viewed society and law as evolving organisms that progress through stages. Article V of the Constitution allows for formal amendments, acknowledging that laws must adapt as human society advances.